Non-Rationalised Civics / Political Science NCERT Notes, Solutions and Extra Q & A (Class 6th to 12th)
6th				7th				8th				9th				10th				11th				12th

Class 12th Chapters
Contemporay World Politics
1. The Cold War Era	2. The End Of Bipolarity	3. Us Hegemony In World Politics
4. Alternative Centres Of Power	5. Contemporary South Asia	6. International Organisations
7. Security In The Contemporary World	8. Environment And Natural Resources	9. Globalisation
Politics In India Since Independence
1. Challenges Of Nation Building	2. Era Of One-Party Dominance	3. Politics Of Planned Development
4. India’S External Relations	5. Challenges To And Restoration Of The Congress System	6. The Crisis Of Democratic Order
7. Rise Of Popular Movements	8. Regional Aspirations	9. Recent Developments In Indian Politics

Chapter 2 The End Of Bipolarity

This chapter focuses on the significant period following the Cold War, marking the beginning of the contemporary era in global politics. The dramatic events starting in 1989, including the dismantling of the **Berlin Wall** – a potent symbol of the Cold War division – led to the collapse of the 'second world' or the communist bloc and the eventual end of the Cold War.

The fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989 was followed by a series of historic changes. Germany, divided after the Second World War, was reunified. In quick succession, the communist governments in the eight East European countries allied with the Soviet Union were replaced, largely due to mass protests. Unlike past instances of unrest, the Soviet Union did not use military force to maintain control. Ultimately, the Soviet Union itself disintegrated.

The chapter examines what the Soviet system was, the factors contributing to its collapse, and the far-reaching consequences of this disintegration for global politics. It also explores the transformation of the former communist states and India's current relationships with these countries.

People making a small opening in the Berlin Wall.

A section of the Berlin Wall is opened, allowing free movement.

The Berlin Wall standing before its demolition in 1989.

These images depict the historic moment of the Berlin Wall's fall in 1989, symbolizing the end of the division between the capitalist West and the communist East and the beginning of the communist bloc's demise.

What Was The Soviet System?

The **Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)** was formed after the socialist revolution in Russia in 1917. This revolution was inspired by socialist ideals and the goal of creating an **egalitarian society**, contrasting sharply with capitalist principles. It represented a major historical effort to abolish private property and build a society based on equality. The Soviet system placed the **state and the Communist Party** at the center of power.

The political system was dominated by the **Communist Party of the Soviet Union**, and no other political parties or opposition were permitted. The economy was under the strict control of the state, with centralized planning dictating economic activities.

Following World War II, the Soviet army's liberation of Eastern European countries from fascist forces led to these nations coming under the USSR's influence. Their political and economic structures were modeled on the Soviet system. This group, including the USSR, was known as the **Second World** or the **'socialist bloc'**. They were militarily unified by the **Warsaw Pact**, with the USSR as the leading power.

Post-WWII, the Soviet Union emerged as a major global power with a developed economy (surpassed only by the US at the time). Its strengths included:

An extensive communication network.
Significant energy resources and heavy industry.
A large manufacturing sector.
An efficient transportation system.

The state also ensured a minimum standard of living for its citizens, providing subsidized access to basic necessities like health, education, and childcare. There was effectively full employment. The dominant form of ownership was **state ownership** of land and productive assets.

Despite these achievements, the Soviet system suffered from fundamental weaknesses:

It was highly **bureaucratic and authoritarian**, leading to difficulties for citizens and suppressing individual freedoms.
The absence of democracy and **freedom of speech** forced people to express discontent through indirect means, like jokes.
The single-party rule by the Communist Party meant tight control over all institutions and a lack of **accountability to the people**.
The party ignored the desire for autonomy, including cultural self-management, among the USSR's fifteen republics.
While officially a union of republics, **Russia exercised disproportionate dominance**, leading to feelings of neglect and suppression in other regions.

The USSR's participation in the arms race, while allowing it to keep pace militarily with the US, came at a massive economic cost. By the late 1970s, the Soviet Union lagged significantly behind the West in technology, infrastructure (transport, power), and the quality and availability of consumer goods. Productivity was low, and the country became increasingly reliant on food imports. The Soviet economy stagnated during this period, further strained by the costly invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.

Gorbachev And The Disintegration

In 1985, **Mikhail Gorbachev** became the General Secretary of the Communist Party, initiating reforms to revitalize the system and catch up with Western technological advancements. His key policies, known as **perestroika** (economic and political restructuring) and **glasnost** (openness and transparency), aimed to address the system's shortcomings.

However, Gorbachev's reforms, including attempts to normalize relations with the West and democratize the USSR, had unforeseen consequences. People in East European countries within the Soviet bloc were emboldened to protest against their communist governments and Soviet influence. Crucially, the Soviet Union under Gorbachev **did not militarily suppress** these uprisings, leading to the rapid collapse of communist regimes across Eastern Europe.

These developments were accompanied by a deepening crisis within the USSR itself, accelerating its disintegration. Gorbachev's reforms faced opposition from different directions:

**Hardliners** within the Communist Party opposed the reforms, viewing them as eroding their power and privileges, believing Gorbachev was acting too quickly.
Some segments of society felt the reforms were **insufficiently fast**, leading to impatience and disappointment with Gorbachev's pace and methods.

This internal conflict weakened Gorbachev's position and fractured public support.

In August 1991, Communist Party hardliners attempted a coup to reverse the reforms. However, the coup failed largely due to public resistance, led prominently by **Boris Yeltsin**, who emerged as a key figure opposing the hardliners.

The failed coup significantly shifted power away from the central Soviet government towards the individual republics. The Russian Republic, with Yeltsin as its elected president, began asserting its sovereignty. The more European parts of the USSR increasingly saw themselves as independent states.

In December 1991, the leaders of the three major Slavic republics – **Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus** – declared the dissolution of the Soviet Union. They annulled the 1922 treaty that had formally created the USSR and announced the establishment of the **Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)**. The Communist Party was banned, and the new republics committed to adopting capitalism and democracy.

The disintegration of the USSR surprised many, including the Central Asian republics, which were quickly included as founding members of the CIS. **Russia** was recognized as the **successor state** to the Soviet Union, inheriting its seat on the UN Security Council, its international commitments, and its nuclear weapons (undertaking some disarmament measures with the US). The Soviet Union effectively ceased to exist on 25 December 1991, when Mikhail Gorbachev resigned.

Why Did The Soviet Union Disintegrate?

The sudden collapse of a global superpower like the Soviet Union is a complex historical question. While unique, it offers insights into the vulnerabilities of political systems.

The primary reason for the disintegration was the **internal weakness** of the Soviet political and economic institutions. These institutions failed to meet the needs and aspirations of the Soviet people. Decades of **economic stagnation** led to chronic shortages of consumer goods, causing widespread dissatisfaction. A growing segment of the population began openly questioning and criticizing the system.

The reasons behind the system's weakness and economic stagnation are multifaceted:

A significant drain on resources was caused by maintaining a vast **military and nuclear arsenal** and financially supporting its satellite states in Eastern Europe and within the USSR (especially the Central Asian republics). This economic burden was unsustainable.
Soviet citizens became increasingly aware of the economic prosperity and technological advancements in the **Western capitalist countries**. This stark contrast with their own system, after years of being told their system was superior, resulted in a significant political and psychological shock and a sense of backwardness.

The Soviet Union also suffered from **administrative and political stagnation**. The Communist Party, which had ruled for over 70 years, was not accountable to the public. The bureaucracy was slow and stifling, corruption was rampant, and the system was unable or unwilling to address its own mistakes or allow for greater openness and transparency. Power was highly centralized in a vast country, and party bureaucrats enjoyed significant privileges. Ordinary citizens felt alienated, leading to a decline in public support for the government and the system.

Mikhail Gorbachev's reforms were intended to address these deep-rooted problems. He aimed to reform the economy, bridge the gap with the West, and decentralize the administrative system. However, his reforms triggered reactions that became difficult to manage. Some groups felt the reforms were **too slow** and were impatient for faster change, while others, particularly within the Communist Party and privileged classes, believed the reforms were **too fast** and threatened their positions. This 'tug of war' led to a loss of support for Gorbachev from various factions, including some who initially supported him but felt his policies were not adequately defended.

Beyond the internal economic and political problems and the impact of reforms, a critical and arguably the most immediate factor leading to the collapse was the **rise of nationalism** and the demand for sovereignty from the various republics within the USSR. There are differing views on whether this nationalism was always present or was significantly accelerated by Gorbachev's loosening of central control.

Ironically, while many observers predicted nationalist unrest would be strongest in the Central Asian republics due to ethnic/religious diversity and economic challenges, it proved most potent in the more prosperous and "European" republics like Russia, the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, and Georgia. Citizens in these republics felt alienated from Central Asians and from each other and perceived that they were bearing a disproportionate economic cost to support the less developed regions of the Union.

Consequences Of Disintegration

The collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the socialist bloc had profound and lasting consequences, fundamentally altering the landscape of world politics. Three broad types of changes were particularly significant:

End of Cold War Confrontation: The disintegration brought a decisive end to the decades-long rivalry between the US and the USSR. The ideological contest between socialism and capitalism was effectively concluded, with capitalism emerging as the dominant global economic system. This ended the massive arms race, military bloc competition, and proxy conflicts that had characterized the Cold War, opening the possibility for a new era of peace.

Shift in Global Power Balance: The end of bipolarity drastically changed international power dynamics. The world transitioned towards a **unipolar system**, with the **United States** left as the sole superpower. This was reinforced by the global spread and acceptance of the capitalist economic model. Institutions like the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) became highly influential, providing loans and policy advice to former communist countries undertaking market transitions. Politically, liberal democracy was promoted as the most desirable form of political organization.

Emergence of New States: The dissolution of the USSR and the breakup of Yugoslavia led to the creation of numerous new, independent countries. These states pursued their own national interests and foreign policy choices. Many in Eastern Europe and the Baltics sought integration with Western institutions like the European Union (EU) and NATO. Central Asian states navigated their strategic location, seeking to maintain ties with Russia while also developing relationships with the West, China, and others. This influx of new players, each with unique identities, interests, and significant challenges, reshaped the international system.

Shock Therapy In Post-Communist Regimes

Following the fall of communism, most of these countries embarked on a challenging transition process from centrally planned, authoritarian socialist systems to democratic, capitalist ones. The transition model adopted, particularly in Russia, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe, and influenced by the World Bank and IMF, was termed **'Shock Therapy'**.

Shock Therapy involved a rapid and comprehensive shift to a market economy. Despite variations in speed and intensity, the core direction and features were similar across these nations. It demanded a complete dismantling of the structures built during the Soviet era, with **private ownership** becoming the principal form of property holding.

Key elements of Shock Therapy included:

Large-scale, immediate **privatization** of state-owned assets and enterprises.
Rapid adoption of corporate ownership structures.
Conversion of collective farms into **private agricultural holdings**.

This approach essentially bypassed any potential alternative or 'third way' models between state socialism and pure capitalism.

The transition also involved a dramatic reorientation of these economies towards the global market. The new approach emphasized **free trade** and attracting **foreign direct investment (FDI)** as the main drivers of economic growth. This required:

Opening up the economy to foreign investment.
Deregulating the financial sector.
Making the national currency convertible on international markets.

Furthermore, the existing trade relationships among the former Soviet bloc countries were broken up. Each state was encouraged to establish direct economic links with the West rather than maintaining regional ties. This process aimed to integrate these economies into the Western economic system, with Western capitalist states and international agencies playing a leading role in guiding their development.

Consequences Of Shock Therapy

The implementation of Shock Therapy in the 1990s did not lead to the promised era of prosperity and mass consumption. Instead, it broadly resulted in economic devastation and hardship for the populations in the region.

The major negative consequences included:

The near-total collapse of the large state-controlled industrial sector, particularly in Russia, where around **90% of industries were privatized**. Since this was driven purely by market forces without adequate state support or regulatory frameworks, it led to the demise of entire industries.
This rapid privatization process was often criticized as the **'largest garage sale in history'**. Valuable state assets were severely undervalued and sold at extremely low prices. Although citizens received privatization vouchers, many sold them for immediate cash on the black market due to economic hardship, failing to benefit from the sale of state assets.
The value of the **Russian ruble** plummeted, leading to rampant **hyperinflation** that destroyed people's savings.
The breakdown of the collective farm system resulted in a loss of food security, forcing Russia to import food.
Russia's **real GDP in 1999 was significantly lower than in 1989**, reflecting a severe economic depression.
The disruption of old trade structures left many businesses without markets or supply chains.

Shock Therapy also had detrimental social consequences:

The abrupt dismantling of the state social welfare system, including the removal of subsidies, plunged large parts of the population into **poverty**.
The middle classes were marginalized, and educated professionals (academic, intellectual) faced hardship, leading to a 'brain drain' as many emigrated.
Organized **mafia** groups emerged in many countries, gaining control over various economic activities.
Privatization fueled massive **economic inequality**, creating wide disparities between the wealthy elite and the poor, and between different regions, a stark contrast to the Soviet era's relative equality.

Politically, the emphasis on economic reform often sidelined the development of robust democratic institutions. Constitutions were quickly drafted, often granting extensive powers to the executive president, weakening elected parliaments. In Central Asia, this led to several leaders becoming highly authoritarian, suppressing opposition and extending their rule for prolonged periods.

Most of these economies, notably Russia, began showing signs of recovery around the year 2000, roughly a decade after independence. This revival was largely driven by the **export of natural resources** like oil, natural gas, and minerals. Countries such as Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan became major exporters, and others benefited from transit fees for oil pipelines. Some manufacturing activity also gradually resumed.

Tensions And Conflicts

The post-Soviet region has been prone to instability, with many former republics experiencing civil wars, insurgencies, and internal conflicts. The involvement of external powers often exacerbates these situations.

Examples of conflicts include:

In **Russia**, the republics of Chechnya and Dagestan have been sites of violent separatist movements. Moscow's military responses have drawn criticism for human rights violations.
**Central Asia** faced a prolonged civil war in Tajikistan (until 2001) and various sectarian conflicts. The Nagorno-Karabakh area in Azerbaijan is disputed by local Armenians seeking to join Armenia.
In **Georgia**, independence movements in certain provinces have led to civil conflict.
Political unrest and anti-regime movements have occurred in countries like Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan, and Georgia.
Disputes over resources like **river water** have also caused tensions between regions and countries.

This instability has created significant difficulties for the populations in these areas.

Central Asia's rich hydrocarbon resources have made it a zone of geopolitical competition between external powers and energy companies. Its strategic location bordering Russia, China, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, and its proximity to the Middle East, is significant. After 9/11, the **United States** established military bases and secured overflight rights in Central Asian states to support operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. **Russia** views these states as its 'Near Abroad' and asserts its sphere of influence. **China** is increasingly involved, particularly due to energy interests and growing trade and settlement along border areas.

In **Eastern Europe**, the transition led to diverse outcomes. Czechoslovakia peacefully separated into the Czech Republic and Slovakia. However, the most devastating conflicts occurred in the **Balkan republics of Yugoslavia**. Following 1991, Yugoslavia fragmented as republics like Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. This sparked violent ethnic conflicts, including massacres of non-Serbs, leading to NATO military intervention.

India And Post-Communist Countries

India has maintained positive relations with all the countries that emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the communist bloc. The most significant relationship, however, remains with **Russia**, the successor state to the USSR. India's relationship with Russia is a crucial element of its foreign policy, characterized by historical trust, shared interests, and strong popular connections (e.g., the widespread popularity of Indian cinema and cultural figures in Russia and other post-Soviet countries).

India and Russia share a common vision of a **multipolar world order**. This vision advocates for:

An international system where several powers co-exist and balance each other.
The principle of collective security.
Increased regional cooperation (regionalism).
Settlement of international conflicts through negotiation.
All countries having the freedom to pursue independent foreign policies.
Strengthening, democratizing, and empowering international organizations like the UN.

The relationship was formalized by the **Indo-Russian Strategic Agreement of 2001**, under which numerous bilateral agreements have been signed.

India benefits from its relationship with Russia in several ways:

Russian support on issues like **Kashmir**.
Ensuring **energy supplies**.
Cooperation in combating international **terrorism**.
Gaining access to **Central Asia**.
Helping India balance its relations, particularly with China.

Russia also derives significant benefits from the relationship:

India is Russia's **second-largest market for arms**, with the majority of India's military equipment coming from Russia.
Given India's status as an oil-importing nation, Russia is an important energy partner and has assisted India during past oil crises. India is also seeking increased energy imports and investment cooperation in oilfields in Russia and Central Asian republics like Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan.
Russia has been crucial for India's nuclear energy sector and provided assistance to its space program, such as supplying cryogenic rocket technology when needed.

The two countries also collaborate on various scientific projects.

FLASHBACK: INDIA AND THE USSR

During the Cold War, India and the USSR shared a unique and close relationship, sometimes leading critics to label India as part of the Soviet camp. This relationship had multiple dimensions:

Economic: The Soviet Union provided essential aid and technical expertise for India's public sector projects, including major steel plants (Bhilai, Bokaro, Visakhapatnam) and manufacturing facilities (Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd.), at a time when accessing such assistance from Western countries was difficult. The USSR also facilitated trade by accepting payments in Indian currency when India faced foreign exchange shortages.
Political: The Soviet Union consistently supported India's position on the Kashmir issue at the UN. It also provided crucial support to India during military conflicts, notably during the 1971 war with Pakistan. India, in turn, offered indirect support to certain Soviet foreign policy positions.
Military: India acquired most of its military hardware from the Soviet Union, often through agreements that included joint production, at a time when access to advanced military technology from other nations was limited.
Culture: Indian culture, particularly Hindi films, enjoyed immense popularity throughout the Soviet Union. Many Indian artists and writers visited the USSR, fostering cultural exchange.

BOLLYWOOD STIRS UZBEK PASSIONS

This section highlights the lasting cultural impact of India in the post-Soviet space, using the example of Uzbekistan. Even years after the Soviet Union's collapse, Indian films and cultural figures like Raj Kapoor remain highly popular. This enduring connection underscores the historical ties and cultural exchange that occurred during the Soviet era, demonstrating that cultural links can persist independently of political systems.